The period of the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258) has long been recognized as the formative period of Islamic civilization with its various achievements in the areas of science, literature, and culture.

Both were arduous jobs that led to uprisings—failed—in 689 and 694. Main routes of the Muslim slave trade in Africa. Credit: Aliesin / Rowanwindwhistler / Wikimedia Commons Starting in 861, the ...